111 years ago today Emperor Menelik II passed away as a revered figure in Ethiopian history, who played a significant role in shaping the nation's destiny for better or for worse. Known for his strategic leadership, modernization efforts, and successful resistance against European colonization, the founding of Addis Abeba as the new capital of what was, by then, known as Ethiopia- marked a pivotal moment in the history of Abyssinians. In order to have a thorough understanding of the implications of Menelik II’s rise to power one needs to be understand the context of the shift of power from Gonder to Shewa that took place in the decades prior.
This ascent to power was a remarkable transformation that shifted the political dynamics of the region. Prior to Menelik's rule, Shewa had been a relatively small and marginalized territory within the Abyssinian political landscape, overshadowed by powerful regional entities such as Tigray, Gojjam, and Gonder. The rise of Menelik and Shewa can be attributed to several factors which we will first outline below.
Military Strength and Political Instability:
Shewa's strategic location played a crucial role in Menelik's rise to power. Situated on the terraces overlooking the lowlands south of Abyssinia, Shewa was well-positioned to control key trade routes and access to resources. Its proximity to the heartland of the horn and its relatively defensible terrain gave Shewa a geographic advantage that Menelik skillfully utilized in his political maneuvers.
He recognized the importance of a formidable military force in securing power. He invested in building a well-organized and disciplined army, which played a crucial role in his military campaigns and subsequent rise to power. Menelik's military prowess and his ability to command loyalty from his soldiers contributed significantly to Shewa's growing influence.
Menelik's rise coincided with a period of political instability and fragmentation within the nobility. The decline of the Zemene Mesafint ("Era of Princes") and the weakening of central authority, especially in Gonder, created an opportune moment for ambitious leaders like Menelik to assert their power. Shewa, under Menelik's leadership, capitalized on the power vacuum and emerged as a force to be reckoned with.
Taking this opportunity, he embarked on a campaign of centralizing authority, promoting infrastructure development, and implementing administrative reforms. This forward-looking approach appealed to many Internationalists but had adverse effects on the Ancient Society of Abyssinia.
Menelik was a skilled diplomat who forged strategic alliances with neighbouring regions and managed to gain support from key power brokers. He cultivated relationships with influential leaders, including Ras Gobena of Wollo, who later became a key ally in Menelik's campaigns. These alliances helped Menelik strengthen his position and expand his influence, challenging the dominance of established regional powers.
The rise of Menelik and Shewa brought about significant changes in Abyssinia's political landscape, sparking conflicts with rival factions, especially with Tigrayan nobility like Ras Mengesha Yohannes and Ras Darge Sahle Selassie of Gojjam, who resisted his growing influence. However, through strategic alliances, military victories, and diplomatic maneuvering, Menelik managed to overcome these obstacles and establish himself as a powerful figure in Abyssinia.
The Founding of Addis Ababa: a Curse or a Vision?
The reign of Emperor Menelik II is celebrated for its many accomplishments, but it is not without its controversies among the Abyssinians. The most debated aspects of his legacy is the founding of Addis Ababa in 1886 as the capital of Ethiopia, a decision that formally unified diverse groups under a single center of power. While hailed by some as a stroke of visionary leadership, others interpret this act as a curse on the Amhara people who are now being charged with formally leading a make-believe nation using its language as lingua franca. This inadvertently sowed seeds of ethnic tension and division that would haunt Ethiopia for generations.
Addis Ababa, meaning "New Flower" in Amharic, was established in the central Shewa region, an area historically inhabited by Abyssinians like the Amhara and Gurage peoples, long before the Oromo invasion of the region in the 16th century. By the time of Addis Ababa's founding in the late 19th century, parts of Shewa were occupied by Oromo groups, particularly the Tulama clan, though their nomadic-pastoral lifestyle makes defining permanent territorial "ownership" a matter of scholarly debate.
Menelik’s decision to establish the capital in this location was an act of good faith hoping to bond several nations with a long history of cooperation into one bigger nation. He selected the location for the area's fertile land, proximity to hot springs, and central location for all the concerned nations. However, it the act of good faith was not reciprocated by all nations with some seeking to dominate others such as the Oromos looking to reverse the legacy of Amhara kings such as Menelik II.
The decision to centralize governance in Addis Ababa inadvertently set the stage for the politicization of ethnicity in Ethiopia. The city, with its Abyssinian heritage and its role as the heart of the new Ethiopian state, became a symbol of state authority and imperial unity. Yet, for the Oromo it also meant accepting civilization and a sedentary lifestyle which upended their pastoral drive to roam further.
To this day, Addis Ababa remains a contested city. While it is administered as a federal city, it has been located within the so called Oromia region, leading to disputes over its governance and identity. Menelik's founding of Addis Ababa as a unifying capital continues to provoke debate about whether it was a visionary act of statecraft or a strategic miscalculation that deepened divisions.
To this end it is of utmost importance to mention that the founding of Addis Ababa was but the last of Menelik’s important decisions pertaining the future of Abyssinia, in fact Addis Ababa would not become a fully functioning capital until his death, with the royal palace being built only a mere 6 years before his death.
Modern Ethiopia’s ethnic federalism, with its strong focus on self-determination, can trace some of its roots to the dynamics created by Menelik’s decision. This dual legacy—Addis Ababa as a symbol of Ethiopian unity and a focal point for ethnic tension—reflects the complexities of Menelik’s vision for Ethiopia. While his founding of the capital advanced the state's centralization and modernization, it also introduced enduring questions about identity, belonging, and governance in one of the world’s most diverse nations.
Succession and Legacy:
Let’s step back and look at the context of his rule. Emperor Menelik II ascended to the throne in 1889, at a time when Ethiopia faced numerous challenges, including external threats from European powers seeking to expand their colonies in Africa. Menelik's reign was characterized by his the need for high rule uncommon for Abyssinian history and the consolidation of power which was just as uncommon, as he sought to modernize the Ethiopian state and preserve its independence.
Menelik's rule saw significant achievements, including the Battle of Adwa in 1896, where Abyssinian and Southern forces (Ethiopia) under his command defeated an Italian invasion, becoming the only African nation to repel European colonization. This victory not only secured Ethiopia's sovereignty but also resonated globally as a symbol of African resistance against colonial ambitions. His rule marks the transition from Abyssinia to Ethiopia credits to the feat of Ada in 1896.
Emperor Menelik II's health began to decline in the early 1900s. Complications arising from a stroke in 1901 left him partially paralyzed and unable to actively govern. Despite his ailment, Menelik's reign endured, with the support of his trusted advisors and his wife, Empress Taytu Betul.
However, as years passed, Menelik's health continued to deteriorate, ultimately leading to his death on December 12, 1913. The specific cause of his passing is believed to be a series of strokes and related health complications. His death marked the end of an era and initiated a transition of power within the new Ethiopia.
Following Emperor Menelik II's death, his chosen heir and nephew, Lij Iyasu, was appointed as the new emperor. However, Lij Iyasu's reign was short-lived and fraught with controversy. His modernist and reformist policies, along with his religious beliefs and rumored conversion to Islam, sparked discontent and opposition from various factions within Ethiopian society.
Due to these challenges, Lij Iyasu's reign was eventually challenged and he was deposed in 1916. This led to the ascension of Empress Zewditu, the daughter of Menelik II, to the throne. Empress Zewditu's reign, while relatively brief, marked another significant chapter in Ethiopian history as she became the first female monarch in the nation's modern era.
In conclusion we can assert that while the reign of Emperor Menelik II in 1913 was a momentous event in Ethiopian history, symbolizing the end of a remarkable reign, his vision could not be fully materialised so late in his life. His military accomplishments and efforts to modernize Abyssinia left a lasting impact on the nation. His passing ushered in a period of transition, ultimately leading to Empress Zewditu's reign. Menelik II's legacy endures as a symbol of Amhara resilience, independence, and aspiration to be once again be a global leader even if at the cost of its people’s peace and welfare.
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